At Victoria Circulating Library and Music House, the shelves hold no trace of literary hierarchy. Mills & Boon romances sit cheek-by-jowl with literary classics, while political biographies are stacked atop Tintin comics. Along the narrow aisles, dog-eared piles of mystery novels rise high, with DVDs, CDs, and Hindi bestsellers layered together, packed as tightly as a game of Tetris.
The store appears to be in disarray, but owner Arif Merchant is well aware of the location of every book. For 40 years, he has been rooted in the Mahim district of Mumbai, accumulating a vast collection that caters to the tastes of local readers.
"There's still a human touch here," he said, gently shifting the piles of books stacked on the counter.
In India, using a public library is often not an easy task, which is why cramped and cluttered shops like Victoria's play a vital role. These privately run lending libraries, known as circulating libraries, typically charge a low monthly fee and an additional fee per book borrowed, with a wide range of titles available, from popular novels to books in local languages and comics. This model has existed for centuries, long before the government set up public libraries, and is now experiencing a resurgence, catering to the robust reading demands of the people.
According to the latest statistics, India has 46,746 public libraries, ranking first in the world. However, behind the impressive numbers, there are shortcomings that cannot be ignored. Preedip Balaji, a researcher at the Indian Institute for Human Settlements in Bangalore, pointed out that the statistics include small reading rooms with few books and fully-equipped formal libraries in the same calculation, which does not accurately reflect the actual situation of people's access to library services.
Central, state, and local government policies are inconsistent, and library funding varies greatly across the country. Balaji explained that among India's 36 states and union territories, 17 have yet to enact legislation related to public library funding; many libraries face budget constraints and staffing shortages, making it difficult to meet community needs.
"We are a country with vast territories, a large population and significant regional differences," he said, "libraries are a kind of 'third space' where people can gather regardless of their origin or family background."
Bureaucratic procedures can also be a difficult hurdle to overcome. Many public libraries have not truly become open public spaces for the community, and applicants who want to obtain a library card often have to submit a photo ID, proof of address, and an application form signed and stamped by their school or employer.
Mercant's business model is much simpler. He has around 150 customers a month, whose names are recorded in a thick notebook. Readers pay a refundable deposit of 300 rupees ($3.15) and a rental fee of up to 20% of the book's retail price. He keeps track of readers' preferences and updates his collection accordingly, whether it's niche comics or the latest Geronimo Stilton series, as long as readers want it, he will try to stock it.
Mumbai's Victorial Memorial Library and Reading Room. Photographer: Akanksha Singh/Bloomberg
Bernard Andrade, a resident of Mahim, has been a regular at Victoria for over 30 years, drawn by its vast collection of books. "There are serious non-fiction works, classics, and local language works mainly in Hindi and Marathi," he said, "as well as films and magazines."
India's Ministry of Culture is driving the modernization of public libraries through funding support, personnel training, digital infrastructure development, and policy guidance for states. However, the Free Libraries Network, an organization advocating for equal and free access to reading, learning, and information resources, says there is still much to be done. With a population of over 1.4 billion, only a small fraction of Indians have convenient access to libraries, and socioeconomic barriers stemming from caste and class continue to hinder many people's access to library resources. The organization is calling for universal access to library services to improve the country's literacy and computing abilities. According to data from the World Population Review website, India's literacy rate is 81.7%, lower than Sri Lanka's 92.7% and the global average of 87.7%.
"Few people have given serious thought to what children miss out on when they don't have access to books," said Jatin Lalit, head of the free library network. "There will always be a segment of people who are disconnected from the school and university education system, so where can they go? Community and public libraries are meant to belong to everyone."
India's Ministry of Culture did not respond to a request for comment.
Arif Merchant, owner of the Victoria Public Library and Audio Store, updates his collection based on readers' tastes. Photograph: Akanksha Singh/Bloomberg
Rahul didn't wait for the government to act. In 2024, he founded a free, community-run library in Bans village, a rural area in Uttar Pradesh. The library now has around 4,500 books, Wi-Fi and computers, and 4,500 members, and also extends its services to an additional 54 villages through a mobile library van.
Indians are known to be avid readers, with the average Indian spending 352 hours per year reading, second only to the United States' 357 hours, according to data from the World Population Review.
Balaji believes that in India, where access to public library resources is unevenly distributed, circulating libraries like Victoria are meeting people's strong demand for reading and filling a gap in social infrastructure.
Victoria's bookshelf has everything from classic literature to genre fiction. Photo: Akanksha Singh/Bloomberg
According to the Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature, circulating libraries flourished in the UK from the mid-18th century, thriving for about 100 years and playing a significant role in the formation of a mass reading culture. Jane Austen herself was a member of a circulating library and mentioned such institutions in her letters and novels, including Pride and Prejudice.
India's earliest circulating libraries date back to 1709, when the British Anglican missionary society established the first circulating library in Kolkata, followed by the opening of several others over the next few decades. Today, the UK has largely replaced these private lending libraries with free public libraries; however, major cities in India still retain this type of private book rental business, including Eloor Libraries, which was established in 1979 and now has three branches.
Merchant's street-side old store seems to have been forgotten by time, while its peers, such as Easwari Lending Library in Chennai and Choose&Read in Coimbatore, have introduced online ordering and door-to-door book delivery services. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the number of customers plummeted, and the entire industry was severely impacted; to this day, the industry still faces numerous challenges, including rapid rent increases that outpace membership fee growth and digital entertainment diverting time away from physical reading materials.
Even so, Merchant said that business in the store has picked up somewhat after the epidemic, especially with a noticeable increase in young customers.
"Parents bring their children to get in touch with books," he said, "as long as someone is willing to take the books home to read, I am satisfied, what could be more important than this?"